@article {13829, title = {Gender Differences in the Protective Role of Grandparenting in Dementia Risk.}, journal = {Journal of Applied Gerontology, Series B, Psychological Sciences and social sciences}, year = {Forthcoming}, abstract = {

OBJECTIVES: This study provides one of the first national longitudinal studies of the association between caring for grandchildren (i.e., grandparenting) and the risk of dementia in the U.S., with a focus on gender-specific variations.

METHOD: We estimated discrete-time event history models, drawing upon data from the Health and Retirement Study (2000-2016). The analytic sample included 10,217 community-dwelling White and Black grandparents aged 52 years and older at baseline.

RESULTS: Noncoresident grandparenting was associated with a lower risk of dementia for both women and men compared to grandparents who did not take care of grandchildren. However, the cognitive advantage showed different patterns based on gender and the combination of care intensity and family structure. Grandmothers had a lower risk of dementia than noncaregiving grandmothers when providing a light level of noncoresident grandparenting, while grandfathers who provided intensive noncoresident grandparenting had a reduced risk of dementia compared to their noncaregiving counterparts. Grandparenting experiences within multigenerational households and skipped-generation households were not associated with dementia risk.

DISCUSSION: Intergenerational caregiving plays a pivotal role in shaping cognitive health during later life; however, the impact is nuanced, depending on factors such as gender, care intensity and family structure.

}, keywords = {Caregiving, Cognition, Event history analysis, Intergenerational Relations, Living arrangement}, issn = {1758-5368}, doi = {10.1093/geronb/gbae034}, author = {Choi, Seung-Won Emily and Zhang, Zhenmei and Liu, Hui} } @article {13164, title = {Under Different Roofs? Coresidence With Adult Children and Parents{\textquoteright} Mental Health Across Race and Ethnicity Over Two Decades.}, journal = {Demography}, volume = {60}, year = {2023}, month = {2023 Apr 01}, pages = {461-492}, abstract = {

Many U.S. parents share a household with an adult child in later life. However, the reasons parents and adult children coreside may vary over time and across family race/ethnicity, shaping relationships with parents{\textquoteright} mental health. Using the Health and Retirement Study, this study investigates the determinants and mental health correlates of coresidence with adult children from 1998 to 2018 among White, Black, and Hispanic parents under age 65 and aged 65+. Findings show that the predictors of coresidence shifted with increasing odds that parents lived with an adult child, and several varied by parents{\textquoteright} age group and race/ethnicity. Compared with White parents, Black and Hispanic parents were more likely to live with adult children, especially at older ages, and to indicate that they helped their children with household finances or functional limitations. Living with adult children was associated with higher depressive symptoms among White parents, and mental health was negatively related to living with adult children who were not working or were helping parents with functional limitations. The findings highlight increasing diversity among adult child-coresident parents and underscore persistent differences in the predictors and meaning of coresidence with adult children across race/ethnicity.

}, keywords = {Adult, Adult children, ethnicity, Humans, Intergenerational Relations, Mental Health, Parents, Residence Characteristics}, issn = {1533-7790}, doi = {10.1215/00703370-10571923}, author = {Caputo, Jennifer and Cagney, Kathleen A} } @article {11243, title = {Age at Immigration and Depression: The Mediating Role of Contemporary Relationships with Adult Children among Older Immigrants.}, journal = {The Journals of Gerontology: Series B}, volume = {77}, year = {2022}, pages = {413-423}, abstract = {

OBJECTIVES: For the growing population of older immigrants in the United States, both age at immigration and familial relationships are important factors affecting psychological well-being. This study explores how age at immigration and contemporary relationships with adult children combine to explain older immigrants{\textquoteright} depressive symptoms.

METHOD: This study uses 2014 Health and Retirement Study data from a sample of 759 immigrants age 65 and older who have at least one adult child age 21 or older. A series of ordinary least squares regressions and mediational analyses were conducted.

RESULTS: Findings indicate that structural solidarity significantly mediates the association between age at immigration and depressive symptoms. Specifically, immigrating in later life was associated with a lower level of depressive symptoms through its relationship with structural solidarity. In addition, giving monetary support to children and providing care for grandchildren may alleviate depressive symptoms for older immigrants.

DISCUSSION: This study suggests that relationships with adult children may differ with age at immigration. The types of support that older immigrants provide to their adult children may be crucial because such support may instill a sense of obligation and reciprocity that may be beneficial to the psychological well-being of older immigrants.

}, keywords = {depression, Intergenerational Relations, Later-life immigration, Migration}, issn = {1758-5368}, doi = {10.1093/geronb/gbaa209}, author = {Heejung Jang and Pilkauskas, Natasha V and Tang, Fenyan} } @article {12080, title = {Long-term decline in intergenerational mobility in the United States since the 1850s.}, journal = {Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A}, volume = {117}, year = {2020}, month = {2020 01 07}, pages = {251-258}, abstract = {

We make use of newly available data that include roughly 5 million linked household and population records from 1850 to 2015 to document long-term trends in intergenerational social mobility in the United States. Intergenerational mobility declined substantially over the past 150 y, but more slowly than previously thought. Intergenerational occupational rank-rank correlations increased from less than 0.17 to as high as 0.32, but most of this change occurred to Americans born before 1900. After controlling for the relatively high mobility of persons from farm origins, we find that intergenerational social mobility has been remarkably stable. In contrast with relative stability in rank-based measures of mobility, absolute mobility for the nonfarm population-the fraction of offspring whose occupational ranks are higher than those of their parents-increased for birth cohorts born prior to 1900 and has fallen for those born after 1940.

}, keywords = {Censuses, Family Characteristics, Female, History, 19th Century, History, 20th Century, Humans, Income, Intergenerational Relations, Male, Parents, social mobility, Socioeconomic factors, United States}, issn = {1091-6490}, doi = {10.1073/pnas.1905094116}, author = {Song, Xi and Massey, Catherine G and Rolf, Karen A and Ferrie, Joseph P and Rothbaum, Jonathan L and Xie, Yu} } @inbook {Bao2020, title = {Parenting and Grandparenting}, booktitle = {Encyclopedia of Gerontology and Population Aging}, year = {2020}, pages = {1-13}, publisher = {Springer International Publishing}, organization = {Springer International Publishing}, abstract = {Parenting refers to the activities that parents engage in to raise their children and the skills involved to facilitate child development (Lee et al. 2014). When children are young, parenting behaviors often focus on {\textquotedblleft}nurturing, stimulating and socializing children{\textellipsis}(and) monitoring their activities{\textquotedblright} (Furedi 2002, p. 5). As children enter adulthood, parenting in parents{\textquoteright} mid- and later life usually involves granting children autonomy and helping them to achieve independence in emerging adulthood as well as providing instrumental and emotional support to adult children when needed. Grandparenting concerns the support and care that grandparents, typically grandmothers, provide to their grandchildren (Timonen and Arber 2012). Scholars tend to view grandparenting broadly also to include contact, shared activities, emotional attachment, and overall relationship quality between grandparents and grandchildren.}, keywords = {Grandparenting, Intergenerational Relations, Parenting}, isbn = {978-3-319-69892-2}, doi = {10.1007/978-3-319-69892-2_892-1}, author = {Bao, Luoman and Huang, Ying}, editor = {Gu, Danan and Matthew E Dupre} } @article {6516, title = {Older Adults With Three Generations of Kin: Prevalence, Correlates, and Transfers.}, journal = {J Gerontol B Psychol Sci Soc Sci}, volume = {72}, year = {2017}, month = {2017 Oct 01}, pages = {1067-1072}, abstract = {

OBJECTIVES: We document the prevalence and sociodemographic correlates of older adults with three generations of living kin and examine the patterns of transfers among this group compared with those with fewer generations of kin available.

METHOD: We use the Health and Retirement Study (1998-2010) to estimate kin availability and intergenerational transfers among respondents in their 50s, 60s, and 70s.

RESULTS: It is far more common for older adults to have aging parents, children, and grandchildren than to have just two generations of kin (parents and children). Forty percent of adults in their 50s, 30\% of those in their 60s, and 7.5\% of those in their 70s have three generations of kin available. Hispanics and the least educated are more likely to have this generational configuration. The vast majority provides financial or in-kind transfers to at least one generation, and a large minority provides support to both older and younger generations.

DISCUSSION: Although there has been much concern about the strains among those sandwiched between parents and children, it is far more common among older adults to also have grandchildren, and many of these adults are transferring resources both upward and downward to multiple generations.

}, keywords = {Aged, Black or African American, Family, Family Characteristics, Female, Hispanic or Latino, Humans, Intergenerational Relations, Male, Middle Aged, Resource Allocation, Social Support, Surveys and Questionnaires, United States, White People}, issn = {1758-5368}, doi = {10.1093/geronb/gbv158}, url = {http://psychsocgerontology.oxfordjournals.org/content/early/2016/01/26/geronb.gbv158.abstract}, author = {Rachel Margolis and Wright, Laura} } @article {8157, title = {Race/Ethnic Differentials in the Health Consequences of Caring for Grandchildren for Grandparents.}, journal = {J Gerontol B Psychol Sci Soc Sci}, volume = {70}, year = {2015}, month = {2015 Sep}, pages = {793-803}, publisher = {70}, abstract = {

OBJECTIVES: The phenomenon of grandparents caring for grandchildren is disproportionately observed among different racial/ethnic groups in the United States. This study examines the influence of childcare provision on older adults{\textquoteright} health trajectories in the United States with a particular focus on racial/ethnic differentials.

METHOD: Analyzing nationally representative, longitudinal data on grandparents over the age of 50 from the Health and Retirement Study (1998-2010), we conduct growth curve analysis to examine the effect of living arrangements and caregiving intensity on older adults{\textquoteright} health trajectories, measured by changing Frailty Index (FI) in race/ethnic subsamples. We use propensity score weighting to address the issue of potential nonrandom selection of grandparents into grandchild care.

RESULTS: We find that some amount of caring for grandchildren is associated with a reduction of frailty for older adults, whereas coresidence with grandchildren results in health deterioration. For non-Hispanic black grandparents, living in a skipped generation household appears to be particularly detrimental to health. We also find that Hispanic grandparents fare better than non-Hispanic black grandparents despite a similar level of caregiving and rate of coresidence. Finally, financial and social resources assist in buffering some of the negative effects of coresidence on health (though this effect also differs by race/ethnicity).

DISCUSSION: Our findings suggest that the health consequences of grandchild care are mixed across different racial/ethnic groups and are further shaped by individual characteristics as well as perhaps cultural context.

}, keywords = {Aged, Black People, Female, Frail Elderly, Health Status, Health Status Disparities, Hispanic or Latino, Humans, Intergenerational Relations, Longitudinal Studies, Male, Middle Aged, Parenting, Residence Characteristics, Socioeconomic factors, United States}, issn = {1758-5368}, doi = {10.1093/geronb/gbu160}, url = {http://psychsocgerontology.oxfordjournals.org/content/early/2014/12/06/geronb.gbu160.abstract}, author = {Chen, Feinian and Christine A Mair and Bao, Luoman and Yang Claire Yang} } @article {7534, title = {Generational jeopardy? Parents{\textquoteright} marital transitions and the provision of financial transfers to adult children.}, journal = {J Gerontol B Psychol Sci Soc Sci}, volume = {66}, year = {2011}, month = {2011 Jan}, pages = {99-108}, publisher = {66}, abstract = {

OBJECTIVES: Transitions into and out of marriage are becoming more commonplace among persons in middle and later life. We assess the extent to which parental marital transitions influence inter vivos financial transfers to adult children at the family level.

METHODS: Panel data from 6,017 households with adult children in the 1992-1998 waves of the Health and Retirement Study are analyzed in this study.

RESULTS: Net of familial characteristics, those families experiencing a parental marriage were less likely than stably married households to make a financial transfer to an adult child. The effects of divorce or widowhood were modest. Divorce was associated with a slight increase in the probability of providing a transfer. Widowhood was associated with a slight increase in the total amount transferred to children.

DISCUSSION: The study adds weight to the growing argument that marital transitions may alter intergenerational exchanges. The results prompt us to further question how broader demographic and marriage patterns will influence relationships between parents and children in aging societies.

}, keywords = {Adolescent, Adult, Adult children, Aged, Divorce, Female, Financial Support, Humans, Intergenerational Relations, Male, Marriage, Middle Aged, Prejudice, Retirement, Widowhood, Young Adult}, issn = {1758-5368}, doi = {10.1093/geronb/gbq010}, author = {Shapiro, Adam and R Corey Remle} } @article {7236, title = {Parent caregiving choices of middle-generation Blacks and Whites in the United States.}, journal = {J Aging Health}, volume = {20}, year = {2008}, month = {2008 Aug}, pages = {560-82}, publisher = {20}, abstract = {

OBJECTIVE: This study compares how middle-generation caregivers and non-caregivers differ by race and explores racial differences in activities of daily living (ADL), instrumental activities of daily living (IADL), and financial assistance that middle-generation caregivers provide for their parents.

METHOD: Using 2000 Health and Retirement Study data, racially stratified descriptive analyses and logistic regression models for ADL, IADL, and financial assistance are presented.

RESULTS: Parental need and race influence support, with similar patterns of Black and White ADL support, but racial differences in IADL and financial support. Having more children motivates Whites to increase IADL support and reduce financial support; more children decreases Blacks{\textquoteright} IADL support. Sibling caregiver networks influence IADL and financial support in ways that vary by race. The number employed is a key determinant for Blacks for all support, but only influences White ADL support.

DISCUSSION: The findings of this article indicate the importance of sample stratification by race and that employment or other subsidies may aid the expansion of caregiving by middle-generation adults.

}, keywords = {Activities of Daily Living, Black People, Caregivers, Employment, Family Characteristics, Financial Support, Humans, Intergenerational Relations, Logistic Models, Parent-Child Relations, Parents, Siblings, Socioeconomic factors, United States, White People}, issn = {0898-2643}, doi = {10.1177/0898264308317576}, author = {Shelley I. White-Means and Rose M. Rubin} } @article {7248, title = {Preventive health behaviors among grandmothers raising grandchildren.}, journal = {J Gerontol B Psychol Sci Soc Sci}, volume = {63}, year = {2008}, note = {ProCite field 6 : The Journals of Gerontology, Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences}, month = {2008 Sep}, pages = {S304-11}, publisher = {63B}, abstract = {

OBJECTIVES: We examined differential preventive health behavior among grandmothers who recently began raising a grandchild, grandmothers raising a grandchild for at least 2 years, and grandmothers not raising a grandchild.

METHODS: Data came from the 2000, 2002, and 2004 waves of the Health and Retirement Study. We ran multivariate logistic regression models to assess receipt of influenza vaccination, cholesterol screening, monthly breast self-exam, mammography, and Papanicolaou (Pap) tests among grandmothers aged 50 to 75.

RESULTS: Grandmothers who recently began raising a grandchild were significantly less likely to report influenza vaccination and cholesterol screening than grandmothers not raising grandchildren, even after we controlled for increased emotional and financial strains within the household. We also observed this association for Pap tests, although this finding was only marginally significant. Grandmothers who had been raising a grandchild for at least 2 years were significantly more likely to report influenza vaccination and monthly breast self-exam than grandmothers not raising grandchildren.

DISCUSSION: The enhancement of preventive behavior seen among long-term grandparent caregivers does not fully offset the suppression of preventive behavior during the transition into care; support groups should target a range of interventions toward the promotion of healthy behavior among new grandparent caregivers.

}, keywords = {Aged, Breast Self-Examination, Caregivers, Female, Health Behavior, Humans, Hypercholesterolemia, Influenza, Human, Intergenerational Relations, Logistic Models, Mass Screening, Middle Aged, Papanicolaou Test, Preventive Health Services, United States, Vaccination, Vaginal Smears}, issn = {1079-5014}, doi = {10.1093/geronb/63.5.s304}, author = {Lindsey A Baker and Merril Silverstein} } @article {7142, title = {All in the family: the impact of caring for grandchildren on grandparents{\textquoteright} health.}, journal = {J Gerontol B Psychol Sci Soc Sci}, volume = {62}, year = {2007}, month = {2007 Mar}, pages = {S108-19}, publisher = {62}, abstract = {

OBJECTIVES: The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of caring for grandchildren on health behaviors and mental and physical health among older adults.

METHODS: Using a sample of 12,872 grandparents aged 50 through 80 from the Health and Retirement Study, we examined the relationship between stability and change in various types of grandchild care and subsequent health, controlling for covariates and earlier health.

RESULTS: We found no evidence to suggest that caring for grandchildren has dramatic and widespread negative effects on grandparents{\textquoteright} health and health behavior. We found limited evidence that grandmothers caring for grandchildren in skipped-generation households are more likely to experience negative changes in health behavior, depression, and self-rated health. We also found some evidence of benefits to grandmothers who babysit.

DISCUSSION: Our findings suggest that the health disadvantages found previously among grandparent caregivers arise from grandparents{\textquoteright} prior characteristics, not as a consequence of providing care. Health declines as a consequence of grandchild care appear to be the exception rather than the rule. These findings are important given continuing reliance on grandparents for day care and increasing reliance on grandparents for custodial care. However, the findings should be tempered by the recognition that for a minority of grandparents, coresidential grandchild care may compromise health.

}, keywords = {Adaptation, Psychological, Aged, Aged, 80 and over, Aging, Caregivers, Child Care, Child, Preschool, Family Relations, Female, Health Status, Humans, Intergenerational Relations, Male, Middle Aged, Parenting, Risk Assessment, Stress, Psychological}, issn = {1079-5014}, doi = {10.1093/geronb/62.2.s108}, author = {Mary Elizabeth Hughes and Linda J. Waite and Tracey A. LaPierre and Ye Luo} } @article {7070, title = {Effects of retirement and grandchild care on depressive symptoms.}, journal = {Int J Aging Hum Dev}, volume = {62}, year = {2006}, month = {2006}, pages = {1-20}, publisher = {62}, abstract = {

This study explores how grandchild care in conjunction with grandparents{\textquoteright} retirement affects depressive symptoms, using data from the Health and Retirement Survey. The findings demonstrate that retirement moderates the influence of grandchild care obligations on well-being, measured by depressive symptoms. For retired men, freedom from grandchild care obligations is associated with heightened well-being. Among women, continued employment seems to protect against potential negative effects of extensive grandchild care obligations on well-being. The results for men seem most in line with the argument that family care obligations spoil retirement, whereas the results for women suggest a scenario that is most compatible with the role enhancement thesis.

}, keywords = {Aged, Aging, Child, Child Rearing, depression, Family Characteristics, Female, Holistic health, Humans, Intergenerational Relations, Leisure activities, Longitudinal Studies, Male, Middle Aged, Retirement, Sex Factors, Social Responsibility, Surveys and Questionnaires, United States}, issn = {0091-4150}, doi = {10.2190/8Q46-GJX4-M2VM-W60V}, author = {Maximiliane E Szinovacz and Adam Davey} } @article {6933, title = {Elevated depressive symptoms among caregiving grandparents.}, journal = {Health Serv Res}, volume = {39}, year = {2004}, month = {2004 Dec}, pages = {1671-89}, publisher = {39}, abstract = {

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether caregiving grandparents are at an increased risk for depressive symptoms.

DATA SOURCE: National sample (n=10,293) of grandparents aged 53-63 years in 1994, and their spouse/partners, who took part in the Health and Retirement Study (HRS).

STUDY DESIGN: Grandparents were surveyed in 1994 and resurveyed every two years thereafter, through 2000. Over that period, 977 had a grandchild move in or out of their home. These grandparents served as their own controls to assess the impact of having a grandchild in the home. Data Extraction. Depressive symptoms were measured using an abbreviated form of the Center for Epidemiologic Studies-Depression (CES-D) scale, scored 1-8, with a score > or =4 associated with depression "caseness".

PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: At the time of the 1994 interview, 8.2 percent of grandparents had a grandchild in their home. However, there was substantial variation across demographic groups (e.g., 29.4 percent of single nonwhite grandmothers, but only 2.0 percent of single white grandfathers had a grandchild in residence). The impact of having a grandchild in the home varied by grandparent demographic group, with single grandparents and those without coresident adult children experiencing the greatest probability of elevation in depressive symptoms when a grandchild was in residence. For example, single nonwhite grandmothers experienced an 8 percentage point increase in the probability of having a CES-D score > or =4 when a grandchild was in their home, compared to when a grandchild was not in their home, controlling for changes in health care, income, and household composition over time (95 percent CI=0.1 to 15.0 percentage points).

CONCLUSIONS: Grandparents have a greater probability of elevated depressive symptoms when a grandchild is in their home, versus when a grandchild is not in their home. Single women of color bear a disproportionate burden of the depression associated with caring for grandchildren. Since an increasing number of grandparents function as a de facto safety net keeping their grandchildren out of formal foster care, identifying strategies to support the health and well-being of caregiving grandparents is an emerging priority.

}, keywords = {Child, Data collection, depression, Family, Humans, Intergenerational Relations, Interviews as Topic, Middle Aged, Socioeconomic factors, United States}, issn = {0017-9124}, doi = {10.1111/j.1475-6773.2004.00312.x}, author = {Blustein, J. and Sewin Chan and Guanais, F.C.} } @article {6739, title = {Long-term care and nursing home coverage: are adult children substitutes for insurance policies?}, journal = {J Health Econ}, volume = {20}, year = {2001}, note = {RDA 1999-001}, month = {2001 Jul}, pages = {527-47}, publisher = {20}, abstract = {

Recent theoretical work suggests that in some cases, parents will forego the purchase of long-term care insurance and rely on child-provided care in old age. This paper uses data from the Asset and Health Dynamics survey and the Panel Study of Income Dynamics to examine whether the availability of children and other potential caregivers explains why so few elderly persons have long-term care insurance. In contrast to the notion that family members serve as substitutes for long-term care insurance, variables measuring the availability of informal caregivers have no statistically significant effect in models of insurance ownership and models of intentions to purchase insurance.

}, keywords = {Adult, Aged, Caregivers, Family, Female, Home Nursing, Humans, Insurance Coverage, Insurance, Long-Term Care, Intergenerational Relations, Long-term Care, Male, Models, Statistical, Nursing homes}, issn = {0167-6296}, doi = {10.1016/s0167-6296(01)00078-9}, author = {Jennifer M Mellor} } @article {6648, title = {Financial assistance from middle-aged couples to parents and children: racial-ethnic differences.}, journal = {J Gerontol B Psychol Sci Soc Sci}, volume = {54}, year = {1999}, month = {1999 May}, pages = {S145-53}, publisher = {54B}, abstract = {

OBJECTIVES: To examine racial-ethnic differences in the allocation of financial transfers to parents, children, and others by middle-aged couples.

METHODS: Multinomial specification of alternative recipients of financial transfers, using data from the 1992 Health and Retirement Survey.

RESULTS: Transfer patterns are sensitive to parental health and wealth, to children being young or in school, as well as to the donors{\textquoteright} health and wealth. Controlling for these and other factors, including family size and structure, Blacks and Whites are the most likely, and Hispanics the least likely, to financially help their parents compared to assisting offspring. Black couples are the most likely to sacrifice their own consumption to assist parents financially.

DISCUSSION: Future research on transfers should attempt to capture unmeasured noneconomic sources of variation proxied by the race-ethnicity indicator.

}, keywords = {Aged, Child, ethnicity, Family Relations, Female, Financing, Personal, Humans, Intergenerational Relations, Male, Middle Aged, Parent-Child Relations, Racial Groups}, issn = {1079-5014}, doi = {10.1093/geronb/54b.3.s145}, author = {Rebeca Wong and Capoferro, C. and Beth J Soldo} } @article {6626, title = {Parental marital disruption and intergenerational transfers: an analysis of lone elderly parents and their children.}, journal = {Demography}, volume = {36}, year = {1999}, note = {ProCite field 3 : Johns Hopkins U; Agency for Health Care Policy and Research}, month = {1999 Aug}, pages = {287-97}, publisher = {36}, abstract = {

Although one of the most marked demographic trends observed over the twentieth century is the increased rate of divorce, relatively little research has explored the effects of these changing marital patterns in the context of an aging society. Using a sample of lone elderly parents and their adult children, we analyze the direct and indirect effects of marital disruption on four important dimensions of intergenerational transfers: coresidence, financial assistance, adult children{\textquoteright}s provision of informal care, and parental purchase of paid care. Our findings suggest that divorce has deleterious effects on intergenerational transfers, particularly for elderly fathers. Remarriage further reduces exchange. Our results reveal that parents engage in lower levels of transfers with stepchildren relative to biological children. Moreover, intergenerational transfers are sensitive to characteristics of biological children but not to those of stepchildren. Taken together, these results suggest that exchange at the end of the life course continues to be adversely affected by marital disruption.

}, keywords = {Activities of Daily Living, Adult, Aged, Analysis of Variance, Caregivers, Chi-Square Distribution, Divorce, Family, Father-Child Relations, Female, Financial Support, Frail Elderly, Home Nursing, Humans, Intergenerational Relations, Loneliness, Male, Marriage, Parent-Child Relations, Parents, Sample Size, Sampling Studies, Socioeconomic factors}, issn = {0070-3370}, author = {Liliana E Pezzin and Barbara Steinberg Schone} }